Spring Dawn 春曉

春曉

春眠不覺曉

處處聞啼鳥

夜來風雨聲

花落知多少

孟浩然

Spring Dawn

Spring fatigue, I don't awaken to dawn,

Everywhere hearing birds calling.

Night comes with the sounds of wind and rain,

And I know some flowers have fallen.

Meng Haoran (689-740)

Tibetan Ethnogenesis in the Tang History

In modern scholarship there has been some discussion over the origins of the Tibetan people. One recent opinion comes from Michael L. Walter who states the following:

It seems that the final creation of a central, imperial authority was not, as formulated by Tucci long ago, the result of a "conquering aristocracy". It was, rather, the result of the superimposition of a small outside group, with a leadership structure built around an inspirational warrior leader, the btsan-po, on a set of tribal aristocracies brought under his often unsteady central control.¹

In my recent reading of the Tang dynasty history, which was was initially compiled in 945 and revised in 1060,² I realized that his stated view accords with what we see in the classical Chinese history. With respect to whether this is a plausible explanation for Tibetan ethnogenesis, several of the individuals mentioned in the history do appear in earlier histories as significant leaders, which lends some credibility to the story, however I am not in a position to make any conclusions. It is nevertheless valuable to have a classical Chinese perspective on the origins of the Tibetan people.

The detailed history of Tibetan affairs begins in year 634 with the first contact between the Chinese court and Songtsen Gampo, to whom the Zhang Zhung and various Qiang peoples submitted to. This perhaps tentatively marks the beginning of the Yarlung empire. From here there are detailed accounts of interactions with Tibet, both peaceful and otherwise. The Tibetan history comprises two whole scrolls in the Old Book of Tang, which is comparatively long, but reveals how significant a neighbor Tibet was to the Tang empire. There are also two scrolls dedicated to the Western Turks, who were another enduring foe to the Chinese in this period.

The following is from scroll 196a of the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書卷196上).

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吐蕃，在長安之西八千裏，本漢西羌之地也。

Tibet is 8000 li west of Chang'an. It was originally in the Han [206 BCE - 220 CE] the land of the Western Qiang people.

其種落莫知所出也，或雲南涼禿發利鹿孤之後也。利鹿孤有子曰樊尼，及利鹿孤卒，樊尼尚幼，弟傉檀嗣位，以樊尼為安西將軍。

It is unknown where their tribe came from. Some say they are descendants of Tufa Lilugu 禿發利鹿孤 of the Southern Liang [397-414]. Lilugu had a son named Fanni 樊尼. When Lilugu died, Fanni was still young. His younger brother Nutan 傉檀 ascended the throne. Fanni was made general of Anxi.

後魏神瑞元年，傉檀為西秦乞佛熾盤所滅，樊尼招集余眾，以投沮渠蒙遜(name)，蒙遜以為臨松太守。

In year 1 of reign era Shenrui 神瑞 [414] during the Later Wei [386-534], Nutan was destroyed by Qifo Chi Pan 乞佛熾盤 of the Western Qin [385-431]. Fanni summoned together the remaining masses to join with Juqu Mengxun 沮渠蒙遜. Mengxun made him the governor of Linsong.

及蒙遜滅，樊尼乃率眾西奔，濟黃河，逾積石，於羌中建國，開地千裏。

When Mengxun died, Fanni quickly led his masses west. They crossed the Yellow River and went beyond Mt. Jishi. They founded a country in Qiang and opened up 1000 li of land.

樊尼威惠夙著，為群羌所懷，皆撫以恩信，歸之如市。

Fanni was imposing and benevolent. He was cherished by the Qiang tribes. All were treated with grace and trust. They gathered to him as if being in a market.

遂改姓為窣勃野，以禿發為國號，語訛謂之吐蕃，其後子孫繁昌，又侵伐不息，土宇漸廣。歷周及隋，猶隔諸羌，未通於中國。

He then changed his family name to Suboye 窣勃野 and named the country Tufa. As a dialect variant it was called Tubo. His descendents flourished. They further ceaselessly invaded other countries and their realm gradually expanded. Through the Northern Zhou [557-581] and Sui [581-618] dynasties, they had no contact with China as they were still separated by the Qiang tribes.

…

貞觀八年，其贊普棄宗弄贊始遣使朝貢。

In year 8 of reign era Zhenguan [634], their Tsenpo Trisong Songtsen [Gampo; bTsan-po Khri-srong Srong-btsan] first dispatched envoys to pay tribute at court.

弄贊弱冠嗣位，性驍武，多英略，其鄰國羊同及諸羌並賓伏之。

Songsten inherited the throne as a young man. He had a martial disposition and was quite strategically minded. The neighboring countries of Zhang Zhung and Qiang peoples all submitted to him.³

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1 Michael L. Walter, Buddhism and Empire The Political and Religious Culture of Early Tibet (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009), 23.

2 These are respectively the Old Book of Tang (Chn. Jiu Tang Shu 舊唐書) and New Book of Tang (Chn. Xin Tang Shu 新唐書).

3 Despite a degree of Buddhism being introduced, his reign was marked by continual violent expansion and conflict. He inherited the throne from his father Namri Löntsen between 625-627. In the days before his father's reign central Tibet had been controlled by a confederacy of clans including the dBas, Myang and mNon. Namri Löntsen had obtained oaths of allegiance from these tribes with which to expand his territories to the north and east of Lhasa and to Kong Po. Later the Dagpo rebelled and had to be reconquered. Following Namri Löntsen's death these problems mounted. The histories differ on what later transpired. The Tun-Huang Chronicles state the following:

...the paternal subjects rebelled; the maternal subjects revolved. ... The father gNam ri was given poison and died. The son Srong btsan firstly wiped out the families of the rebels and the prisoners.

Meanwhile Butön Rinchen Drup (1290-1364) relates the following:

...Thirteen years of age he ascended the throne and, brought under his power all the petty chiefs of the borderland who offered him presents and sent their messages (of submission).

See The History of Tibet Volume I The Early Period: to c. AD 850 The Yarlung Dynasty, edited by Alex McKay (London, UK: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), 338.

Persia in the Book of Tang

The history of the Tang dynasty (618-907) was initially compiled in 945, though this work was revised in 1060. These are respectively the Old Book of Tang (Chn. Jiu Tang Shu 舊唐書) and New Book of Tang (Chn. Xin Tang Shu 新唐書). As in the earlier dynastic histories there is a large section at the end detailing China's relations with foreign countries with brief details about their customs, exports and features. One country included therein is Persia. In this period it refers to the Sasanian empire or specifically the last years of it as it collapsed from social upheavals and invasions by the Western Turks and Arabs.

Late Sasanian history is an extremely complex era involving multiple realms, players and events that are not always clearly detailed in our extant records. The Chinese record is actually a useful source that historians have access to in reconstructing the last years of the Sasanian period, though of course it must be used cautiously. For example, the accounts provided in the two aforementioned editions of the Tang history differ considerably in some places. It is also presumably entirely based on Chinese sources which may or may not have accurately recorded events that had occurred in a foreign country, to say nothing of the fact that the compilation of this history was done two and a half centuries after the main events detailed had taken place.

Nevertheless, the history provides a contemporary Chinese perspective on the late Sasanian dynasty and how Chinese historians perceived their neighbors to the west. The Persian and Chinese cultural spheres were well connected to one another throughout the Tang period, which is illustrated by the Persian community and Zoroastrian temples in Chang'an.

For further detailed information about the relations between Persia and China in ancient times see the following two articles at Iranica Online:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-i
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-ii

This translation is my own work and I must note it is still tentative and subject to revision. I was unable to identify two of the personal names as well as some of the types of domestic animals listed. I was able to discern most of the personal names by comparing the details provided in the Chinese against the modern Encyclopedia Iranica. The translation is based on the section related to Persia in scroll 198 in the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書卷198 西戎).

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波斯國，在京師西一萬五千三百裏，東與吐火羅、康國接，北鄰突厥之可薩部，西北拒拂菻，正西及南俱臨大海。

The country of Persia is west of the [Chinese] capital 15,300 li. To their east they meet the countries of Tochara and Kang. To their northern border is Kesabu of the Turks. At their northwest are the Byzantines. They face great seas both directly west and south.

戶數十萬。其王居有二城，復有大城十余，猶中國之離宮。

Their households number 100,000. Their king resides in two cities. There are also more than ten great cities. They are like the imperial villas in China.

其王初嗣位，便密選子才堪承統者，書其名字，封而藏之。王死後，大臣與王之群子共發封而視之，奉所書名者為主焉。

When their king first succeeds the throne, he secretly selects a son who may succeed him, writing his name before sealing and storing it away. After the king dies, the great ministers and sons of the king together open the seal and inspect [the document]. They elevate the name written therein as chief.

其王冠金花冠，坐獅子床，服錦袍，加以瓔珞。

The king wears a crown of golden flowers. He sits on a lion throne. His clothing is a brocade gown additionally with neck ornaments.

俗事天地日月水火之諸神，西域諸胡事火祅者，皆詣波斯受法焉。

People commonly worship the various gods of the sky, earth, sun, moon, water and fire. The barbarian peoples of the western regions who tend the sacred fire all visit Persia to receive teachings.

其事神，以麝香和蘇，塗須，點額及於耳鼻，用以為敬，拜必交股。

When worshiping their gods they use musk fragrance mixed with sappanwood, and paint their beards with it. They mark their forehead as well as the ears and nose. They use it as a form of respect. When prostrating they must keep their thighs together.

文字同於諸胡。男女皆徒跣。丈夫翦發，戴白皮帽，衣不開襟，並有巾帔，多用蘇方青白色為之，兩邊緣以織成錦。婦人亦巾帔裙衫，辮發垂後，飾以金銀。

Their script is the same as the barbarian peoples [of Central Asia]. Men and women both go barefoot. Men cut their hair and wear white leather caps. Their garments do not open down the front. They all have turbans. They often use sappanwood, blues and white to color them. Both sides of the hem are weaved into a brocade. Ladies also have turbans and gowns. They braid their hair and hang it behind. They ornament themselves with gold and silver.

其國乘象而戰，每一象，戰士百人，有敗恤者則盡殺之。

The country rides elephants in war. For every elephant there are 100 warriors. Those defeated in battle are all put to death.¹

國人生女，年十歲已上有姿貌者，其王收而養之，以賞有功之臣。

When subjects give birth to a girl who possesses fine beauty at the age of ten and above the king takes her in and raises her. He rewards capable ministers with them.

俗右尊而左卑。

It is their custom for the superior to be to the right and the inferior to the be to the left.

以六月一日為歲首。

The first day of the sixth month is considered the start of the year.

斷獄不為文書約束，口決於庭。其系囚無年限，唯王者代立則釋之。

Legal judgments are not bound by letter. They are verbally decided at court. It is only during the king's enthronement when he can release those prisoners with unlimited sentences.

其叛逆之罪，就火祅燒鐵，灼其舌，瘡白者為理直，瘡黑者為有罪。

For the crime of rebellion they heat an iron in the sacred fire and cauterize the tongue. If the sore becomes white, they are considered just. If the sore becomes black, they are considered guilty.

其刑有斷手、刖足、髡鉗、劓刖，輕罪翦須，或系牌，於項以誌之，經時月而釋焉。

Their punishments include the severing of hands, feet and nose. They will also shave the head of the guilty and attach an iron collar around the neck. For minor crimes they cut off the beard. Some are tied to a board and the back of their neck marked. After a month they are released.

其強盜一入獄，至老更不出，小盜罰以銀錢。

For armed robbery the guilty go into a dungeon and do not come out even when very old. Minor theft is punished with a fine of silver coins.

死亡則棄之於山，制服一月而即吉。

When someone dies they are left on a mountain. It is auspicious if the mourning clothes are still on them after a month.

氣候暑熱，土地寬平，知耕種，多畜牧，有鳥形如橐駝，飛不能高，食草及肉，亦能敢犬攫羊，土人極以為患。

The climate is hot. Their lands are expansive and flat. They understand tilling and seeding. They have much livestock. They have a bird shaped like a camel. It cannot fly high. It eats vegetation and meat. It is even brave against dogs and can seize goats. The locals consider it an extreme menace.

又多白馬、駿犬，或赤日行七百裏者駮，金犬今所謂波斯犬也。

They also have many white horses, and swift hounds. Some on hot days will go for 700 li and become variegated. Their golden hounds are now what we call Persian hounds.

出婁²及大驢、師子、白象、珊瑚樹高一二尺，琥珀、車渠、瑪瑙、火珠、玻璃、琉璃、無食子、香附子、訶黎勒、胡椒、蓽撥、石蜜、千年棗、甘露桃。

They produce great mules, lions, white elephants, coral trees as tall as 1 or 2 chi, amber, carnelians, agates, rubies, crystal, lapis lazuli, aleppo oak, sedge tubers, harītakī,³ black pepper, long pepper, sugar, dates and peaches.

隋大業末，西突厥葉護可汗頻擊破其國，波斯王庫薩和為西突厥所殺，其子施利立，葉護因分其部帥，監統其國，波斯竟臣於葉護。

Later in the Daye 大業 period [605-618] of the Sui [581-619], the Western Turk Yabgu Qaghan [reigned 617-630] constantly attacked the country. The Persian King Khosrau II [reigned 590-628]⁴ was killed by the Western Turks. His son Sheroya [Kavadh II, Sheroya Qobād Širōy, Šērōye] succeeded him. Yabgu then divided his commanders to administer the country. Persia ultimately became subordinate to Yabgu.

及葉護可汗死，其所令監統者因自擅於波斯，不復役屬於西突厥。施利立一年卒，乃立庫薩和之女為王，突厥又殺之。

When Yabgu Qaghan died, those he had made to administer took control on their own initiative over Persia and did not return to serving subordinate to the Western Turks. Sheroya died after a year on the throne before Khosrau's daughter [Borandukht] was made queen. The Turks also killed her.

施利之子單羯方奔拂菻，於是國人迎而立之，是為尹恆支，在位二年而卒。兄子伊嗣候立。

Sheroya's son *Dan Jie Fang⁵ then fled to the Byzantine Empire. Thereupon the [Persian] subjects welcomed and established him on the throne as *Yin Heng Zhi. He was on the throne for two years and died. His elder brother's son Yazdegerd III [632-651] succeeded him.

二十一年，伊嗣候遣使獻一獸，名活褥蛇，形類鼠而色青，身長八九寸，能入穴取鼠。

In year 21⁶ Yazdegerd dispatched an envoy to give as tribute a beast called a huorushe, similar in shape to a rat and colored blue with a body eight or nine cun [inches] long. It can enter holes and grab rats.

伊嗣候懦弱，為大首領所逐，遂奔吐火羅，未至，亦為大食兵所殺。

Yazdegerd was weak and pursued by great chiefs, whereupon he fled to Tochara. He never arrived and was killed by Arab soldiers [in 651].

其子名卑路斯，又投吐火羅，葉護獲免。

His son was named Peroz III who went on and stayed temporarily in Tochara. He was granted a pardon by Yabgu.

卑路斯龍朔元年奏言頻被大食侵擾，請兵救援。

Peroz III in year 1 of reign era Longshuo 龍朔 [661] communicated to the Emperor that they were frequently being invaded and harassed by the Arabs. He requested troops to assist them.

詔遣隴州南由縣令王名遠充使西域，分置州縣，因列其地疾陵城為波斯都督府，授卑路斯為都督。

By imperial order was dispatched Wang Mingyuan of Nanyou county in Long province to the western regions to establish a province and counties. He then arranged the land so that Zarang would be the governing seat of Persia. The governorship was given to Peroz.

是後數遣使貢獻。鹹亨中，卑路斯自來入朝，高宗甚加恩賜，拜右武衛將軍。

After this there were numerous envoys dispatched to pay tribute. During the Xianheng 鹹亨 era [670-674] Peroz himself came to court. Gaozong was quite favorable towards him, granting him the office of General of Right Guard.⁷

儀鳳三年，令吏部侍郎裴行儉將兵，冊送卑路斯為波斯王，行儉以其路遠，至安西碎葉而還，卑路斯獨返，不得入其國，漸為大食所侵，客於吐火羅國二十余年，有部落數千人，後漸離散。

In year 3 of reign era Yifeng 儀鳳 [678] Vice Minister Pei Xingjian 裴行儉 of the Ministry of Personnel was ordered to dispatch troops and enthrone Peroz as king of Persia. As the road was far, Xingjian got to Suiye in Anxi before returning. Peroz returned alone, but was unable to enter the country. It was increasingly being invaded by the Arabs. He was guest in Tochara for more than twenty years. There was a tribe of several thousand people who later gradually dispersed.

至景龍二年，又來入朝，拜為左威衛將軍，無何病卒，其國遂滅，而部眾猶存。

In year 2 of reign era Jinglong [708] he again came to court and was given the title Mighty General of the Left Guards. Not long after he died from illness. His country was destroyed, but a tribe still remained.

自開元十年至天寶六載，凡十遣使來朝，並獻方物。四月，遣使獻瑪瑙床。九年四月，獻火毛繡舞筵、長毛繡舞筵、無孔真珠。

From Kaiyuan 開元 10 until Tianbao 天寶 6 [722-747] there were altogether ten dispatched envoys which came to court all offering as tribute local items. In the fourth month they offered a couch of agate. In the fourth month of the ninth year they offered a fiery-wool embroidered dance rug, a long wool embroidered dance rug and flawless pearls.

乾元元年，波斯與大食同寇廣州，劫倉庫，焚廬舍，浮海而去。

In year 1 of reign era Qianyuan 乾元 [758] Persia and the Arabs both attacked Guangzhou. They plundered the warehouses and razed the buildings before floating off to sea.

大歷六年，遣使來朝，獻真珠等。

In year 6 of reign era Dali 大歷 [771] they dispatched an envoy to court and offered pearls.

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1 Encyclopedia Iranica notes the following: “Ḵosrow was forced to raise an army of cooks and slave boys, and yet he ordered his commanders to execute the troops who had been defeated on battlefields.” See http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty

2 Unclear what 婁 refers to.

3 A type of evergreen tree: Myrobalan tree (terminalia chebula), or the fruits of said plant. Used in medicine. The fruits are used for making yellow dyes or as a laxative.

4 See Iranica Online article: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khosrow-ii

5 Unclear who this is.

6 The XTS states this was in Zhenguan 貞觀 12 [638].

7 The XTS states Peroz died at the Chinese court in the Xianheng era after receiving this title. His son Ninieshi was then the one who in Tiaolu 調露 1 [679] went on the subsequent journey with Pei Xingjian only to remain in Tochara for more than twenty years.